Women's online experiences of sexual objectification : measurement development and associations with body image and mental health / Kyla M. Cary.

The sexual objectification of girls and women is ubiquitous in patriarchal American culture (Gervais et al., 2020). When girls and women are sexually objectified, their bodies are reduced to sexual objects to be observed and evaluated by others, without the consideration of personal character or dignity (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). Objectification theory posits that sexual objectification is experienced both within interpersonal social interactions and via exposure to the objectification of others (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). Indeed, women report experiencing exposure to the sexual objectification of other women 1.35 times daily and experience being sexually objectified themselves at least every-other-day (Holland et al., 2017). As a result of these repeated experiences of sexual objectification, girls and women face a plethora of negative outcomes (for reviews see: Daniels et al., 2020; Moradi & Huang, 2008). More specifically, sexual objectification experiences result in self-objectification, or internalization of objectification in which one begins to think of themselves as an object to be evaluated and used by others (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). It is this self-objectification that serves as a mediator between experiences of sexual objectification and subsequent outcomes within the areas of body image and mental health, with prior research supporting this pathway of outcomes (Calogero, 2004; Moradi & Huang, 2008; Tiggemann & Slater, 2002). However, sexual objectification and resultant outcomes were originally conceptualized as occurring solely within offline, interpersonal interactions and exposure to objectification within traditional media (i.e., print, movies, television). Little is known about how sexual objectification is experienced by women within online contexts via interpersonal interactions and exposure to objectification of others online.The present study aims to address this gap in the literature by (1) using psychometric methods to develop and validate an instrument to capture emerging adult women's online sexual objectification experiences and (2) explore associations between online sexual objectification, self-objectification, body image, and mental health. Study 1 (presented in Chapter 2) reports on the development and psychometric evaluation of the Online Sexual Objectification Experiences Scale (OSOES). Data from 898 emerging adult college women were collected in two studies. Exploratory factor analyses revealed three factors: Appearance-based Harassment, Unwanted Sexual Solicitations, and Indirect Sexual Objectification. OSOES scores were internally consistent and were strongly associated with scores of self-objectification, body surveillance, and body shame. OSOES subscale scores also provided evidence of incremental validity in predicting scores of self-objectification above and beyond offline, interpersonal sexual objectification. Study 2 (presented in Chapter 3) explores associations between online sexual objectification experiences, self-objectification, body image, and mental health, controlling for offline sexual objectification, among emerging adult women. A structural equation model was tested in which self-objectification mediated the associations between online sexual objectification experiences and latent factors of body image (comprised of internalization of the thin ideal, body surveillance, and body shame) and mental health (comprised of depression, anxiety, and satisfaction with life). Indirect paths between online sexual objectification, body image, and mental health through the mediating variable of self-objectification were significant, indicating that sexual objectification experienced within the online context is associated with a similar pathway of outcomes to that of offline sexual objectification. Educators and clinicians should be made aware of the prevalence of women's experiences of online sexual objectification and the potential consequences associated with online objectification such as self-objectification, poor body image and mental health.

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