African Americans in science.

The author surveys the history of African Americans in the sciences. Europeans had experience with a few black scientists from the early 18th century, though because American scientists of the time were less advanced and free blacks typically pursued education in medicine or invention rather than pure scientist, Benjamin Banneker in the late 18th century was was the only African American engaged in pure science until the end of the Civil War. Following emancipation, black colleges and universities sprang up to provide systematic education to freed blacks, although scientific education was a low priority. Not until the early twentieth century did a group of black scientists emerge who received PhDs from major white universities, pursued science at the research level, and published in the leading scientific journals of the day. The Second World War brought some public notice to black scientists, and after the war, a few white universities did begin to open up opportunities for blacks on their faculty as well as for blacks seeking graduate training within the departments. The author overviews the increasing numbers of and opportunities for African American scientists in the second half of the 20th century, but details the many educational and other barriers that continue to keep African Americans very underrepresented in the sciences. Manning examines the role of African Americans in evaluating and challenging scientific theories of race, from cranial and physical theories to eugenics and genetic analysis. Following the essay, a bibliography of recommended reading, a chronology of events from 1753 to 1995, and a glossary are presented.